Wayzata World Factbook 1994/World Factbook - 1994 Edition - Wayzata Technology (1994).iso/pc/text/txtfiles/turkey.bkg

Text File | 1994-04-07 | 29KB | 494 lines

#CARD:Turkey:Background Notes
US DEPARTMENT OF STATE BACKGROUND NOTES:  TURKEY

January 1991
Official Name: Republic of Turkey

PROFILE
Geography
Area:  766,640 sq. km. (296,000 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Texas.
Cities:  Capital-Ankara (pop. 3.69 million).  Other cities-Istanbul
(6.82 million), Izmir (2.61 million), Adana (1.93 million).  Terrain:
Narrow coastal plain surrounds Anatolia; an inland plateau becomes
increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.  Turkey includes one of
the more earthquake-prone areas of the world.  Climate:  Moderate in
coastal areas, harsher temperatures inland.

People
Nationality:  Noun-Turk(s).  Adjective-Turkish.  Population (1989 est.):
 55.3 million.  Annual growth rate:  2.2%. Ethnic groups:  Turkish,
Kurdish, other.  Religions:  Muslim 98%, Christian, Jewish. Languages:
Turkish (official), Kurdish, Arabic.  Education:  Years compulsory-6.
Attendance-95%.  Literacy-89%. Health:  Infant mortality rate-62/1,000.
Life expectancy-66 yrs.  Work force (18.7 million):  Agriculture-50%.
Industry and commerce-21%.  Services-29%.

Government
Type:  Republic.  Independence:  1923. Constitution:  November 7, 1982.
Branches:  Executive-president (chief of state), prime minister, Council
of Ministers (cabinet).  Legislative-Grand National Assembly (450
members) chosen by national elections at least every 5 years.
Judicial-constitutional court, court of cassation, council of state,
high council of judges and prosecutors.
Political parties:  Motherland Party (ANAP), Social Democrat Populist
Party (SHP), Correct Way Party (DYP), democratic Left Party (DSP),
several smaller parties.  Suffrage:  Universal, 21 and older.
Central government budget (1989 est.):  $15.5 billion (32,933 billion
Turkish lira).
Defense:  2.8% of 1989 GDP or 13.2% of 1989 budget.
National holiday:  Republic Day, October 29.
Flag:  White crescent and star on a red field.

Economy
GNP (1989 estimate):  $80.5 billion.  Annual growth rate (1983-89):
5.3%.  Per capita income (1989 estimate):  $1,433.  Avg. annual
inflation rate (1989):  About 68.8%.
Natural resources:  Coal, chromite, copper, boron, oil.
Agriculture (15% of GNP):  Major cash crops-cotton, sugar beets,
hazelnuts, wheat, barley, and tobacco.  Provides more than 55% of jobs,
25% of exports.
Industry (32% of GNP):  Major growth sector.  Types-Food processing,
textiles, basic metals, chemicals, and petrochemicals.
Trade (1989):  Exports-$12 billion:  tobacco, cotton, textiles, cement,
raisins, nuts, leather, glass, ceramics.  Imports-$16 billion:
petroleum, pharmaceuticals and dyes, iron and steel, machinery, plastics
and rubber, transport vehicles.  Major partners-France, Germany, Iran,
Iraq, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, UK, US, USSR.
Fiscal year:  Calendar year.
Official exchange rate (Feb. 1990):  2408 Turkish lira=US$1 (adjusted
daily).
US economic aid (FY 1946-90):  $4.3 billion.  US military aid (FY
1946-90):  more than  $14 billion.

Membership in International Organizations
 UN, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Council of Europe,
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Islamic
Conference Organization (OIC), European Community (EC) associate member,
ITELSAT.

PEOPLE
 Bridging Europe and Asia Minor, Turkey is a land of geographic,
economic, and social contrasts.  Slightly larger than Texas, modern
Turkey spans bustling cosmopolitan centers, pastoral farming villages,
barren wastelands, peaceful Aegean islands, and steep mountain regions.
More than half of Turkey's population-expected to reach 83 million by
2005 if its annual growth rate of 2.2% continues-live in urban areas
that juxtapose Western life-styles with squatter dwellings that
increasingly ring the cities' edges.  Most Turks,  however, work on
farms.  Although Turkey is still a developing country,  recent
improvements in services have resulted in the proliferation of
electricity nationwide and telephone connections for all its 34,500
villages.
 Although 98% of the population is Muslim, Turkey has been officially
secular since the early 1920s.  Most Turkish Muslims belong to the Sunni
branch of Islam.  The state exercises no legal discrimination against
its non-Islamic minorities, primarily Armenian and Syriac Christians, nd
Jews.
 Turks of Kurdish origin constitute an ethnic and linguistic group.
Estimates of their population range up to 10 million.  Although an
increasing number have migrated to the cities, the traditional home of
the Kurds is in poor, remote areas of the east and southeast, where
incomes are less than half the national average and economic development
lags.

Culture
 Turkish culture, rich in Ottoman and folkloric elements, is traditional
and modern.  Turkish carpet weaving is one of the oldest crafts in the
world.  Ceramics and other Ottoman-era crafts retain their varied
regional character.
 Modern Turkish cultural life dates from the 1923 founding of the
republic and early efforts to Westernize Turkish society.  As a result,
the arts, literature, drama, and classical and contemporary music have
flourished.  State support of cultural activities is extensive and
encompasses a national network of theaters, orchestras, opera and ballet
companies, university fine arts academies, and various conservatories.
Public funds also are used to pro-vide partial support for private
theater groups and for major art exhibitions and festivals.

HISTORY
 The legendary Mustafa Kemal, a Turkish World War I hero later known as
"Ataturk" or "father of the Turks," founded the republic of Turkey in
1923 after the collapse of the 600-year-old Ottoman Empire.  The empire,
which at its peak controlled vast stretches of northern Africa,
southeastern Europe, and western Asia, had failed to keep pace with
European social and technological developments.  The rise of nationalism
impelled several ethnic groups to seek independence, leading to the
empire's fragmentation.  This process culminated in the disastrous
Ottoman participation in World War I as a German ally.  Defeated, shorn
of much of its former territory, and partly occupied by forces of the
victorious European states, the Ottoman structure was repudiated by
Turkish nationalists who rallied under Ataturk's leadership.  The
nationalists expelled invading Greek forces from Anatolia after a bitter
war.  The temporal and religious ruling institutions of the old empire
(the sultanate and caliphate) were abolished.
 The new republic concentrated on Westernizing the empire's Turkish
core-Anatolia and a small part of Thrace.  Social, political,
linguistic, and economic reforms and attitudes introduced by Ataturk
before his death in 1938 continue to form the ideological base of modern
Turkey.  Referred to as "Kemalism," it comprises secularism,
nationalism, and modernization and turns toward the West for inspiration
and support.  The continued validity and applicability of Kemalism are
the subject of frequent discussion and debate in Turkey's political
life.
 Turkey entered World War II on the Allied side shortly before the war
ended and became a charter member of the United Nations.  Difficulties
faced by Greece after World War II in quelling a Communist rebellion and
demands by the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish Straits
caused the United States to declare the Truman Doctrine in 1947.  The
doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of
Turkey and Greece and resulted in large-scale US military and economic
aid.  After participating with United Nations forces in the Korean
conflict, Turkey in 1952 joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO).

Military Coups and Coalitions
 One-party rule (Republican People's Party-RPP) established by Ataturk
in 1923 lasted until elections in 1950.  The Democrat Party then
governed Turkey until 1960, when growing economic problems and internal
political tensions culminated in a military coup.  A new constitution
was written, and civilian government was reinstated with the convening
of the Grand National Assembly (GNA) in 1961.  In addition, the new
constitution established a National Security Council (NSC) composed of
the chief of the Turkish general staff and representatives of the army,
air force, and navy.
 Coalition governments, dominated by the RPP, ruled Turkey for the next
5 years.  In 1965 and 1969, the Justice Party (JP), led by Suleyman
Demirel, won sizable majorities of GNA seats and ruled alone.
 Political agitation surfaced in 1968 and increased as left- and
right-wing extremists took to the streets.  In March 1971, senior
military leaders grew dissatisfied with the JP's inability to cope with
domestic violence. In a so-called "coup by memorandum," they called for
the JP's replacement by a more effective government.
 Demirel's government resigned and was replaced by a succession of
"above party" governments, which ruled until the October 1973 general
elections.  Those elections saw the RPP reemerge as the largest party
and its chairman, Bulent Ecevit, become prime minister of a coalition
government composed of the RPP and the conservative, religiously
oriented National Salvation Party.  In 1974, the coalition faltered.
Ecevit resigned, early elections were called, and a prolonged government
crisis ensued.
 From 1975 to 1980, unstable coalition governments ruled, led
alternately by Demirel and Ecevit.  By the end of 1979, an accelerating
decline in the economy, coupled with mounting violence from the extreme
left and right, led to increasing instability. Demirel's government
began an economic stabilization program in early 1980, but by summer,
political violence was claiming more than 20 victims daily.
 A severely divided GNA was unable to elect a new president or to pass
other legislation to cope with the crisis.
 On September 12, 1980, the NSC, led by General Kenan Evren, moved
successfully to restore public order.  Thousands of terrorists were
captured, along with large caches of weapons and ammunition.  While
political activity was banned and the former political parties
dissolved, the NSC initiated steps to restore democratic civilian rule
by 1983. These measures included a national referendum on November 7,
1982, which resulted in overwhelming public approval (91%) of a new
constitution drawn up by the 160-member Consultative Assembly and
modified by the NSC.  The referendum simultaneously approved General
Evren as president for a 7-year term.  A temporary article banning
former political party leaders from politics for 10 years also went into
effect.
 New political parties were allowed to form in 1983 as long as founding
members were not leaders or members of parliament attached to any
pre-1980 political parties.  Prior to the deadline for participation in
the 1983 national elections, three political parties-the Nationalist
Democracy Party, the Motherland Party, and the Populist Party-were
authorized.
 In the 1983 elections, the Motherland Party (founded by Turgut Ozal,
deputy prime minister between 1980 and 1982 and architect of Turkey's
successful economic austerity program under the military government) won
an absolute majority in the 400-member Grand National Assembly (GNA).
The Populist Party came in second, and the Nationalist Democracy Party
third. The new government took office in December 1983.
 The Ozal administration, the first civilian government since the early
1970s to rule without coalition partners, made economic reform its
priority.
 In September 1987, a referendum lifting the 10-year ban on former
politicians passed by a small margin. Ozal called immediately for
national elections, the first since 1980 in which all legal parties were
allowed to participate.  The elections were held in November, and Ozal
won a second 5-year term and a comfortable majority in parliament (292
of 450 seats based on a weighted proportional system).  The Social
Democrat Populist Party won 99 seats and became the main opposition
party.  Former Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel's Correct Way Party won
59 seats.  No other party reached the 10% level necessary to enter
parliament.  The Democratic Left Party of former Prime Minister Bulent
Ecevit won only 8% of the vote.  The next parliamentary election is due
in 1992.
 In 1989, Ozal was elected president.  Ozal's Motherland Party suffered
a setback in March 1989 municipal elections, receiving only 22% of the
votes cast; down from 36% in 1987.  The opposition has since called
repeatedly for early parliamentary elections.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
 The 1982 constitution preserves a democratic, secular, parliamentary
form of government with a strengthened presidency.  It provides for an
independent judiciary and safeguards internationally recognized human
rights.  These rights, including freedom of thought, expression,
assembly, and travel, can be limited in times of emergency and cannot be
used to violate the integrity of the state or to impose a system of
government based on religion, ethnicity, or the domination of one social
class.  The constitution prohibits torture or ill treatment.  Labor
rights, including the right to strike, are recognized in the
constitution but can be restricted.  The president and prime minister
share executive powers.  The president, who has broad powers of
appointment and supervision, is chosen by the GNA for a term of 7 years
and cannot be reelected.  The prime minister administers the government.
 The prime minister and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the
GNA.
 The 450-member GNA carries out legislative functions.  Election is by
proportional representation. To participate in the distribution of
seats, a party must obtain at least 10% of the votes cast at the
national level as well as a percentage of votes in  the contested
district according to a complex formula.  This "double threshold" or
"barrage" mechanism is intended to reduce the likelihood of coalition
governments by reducing the number of smaller parties in parliament.
 The president is to enact laws passed by the GNA within 15 days.  With
the exception of budgetary laws, the president may return a law to the
GNA for reconsideration.  If the GNA reenacts the law, it is binding.
Constitutional amendments require a two-thirds majority for approval.
They also may be submitted to popular referendum.
 The 1982 constitution preserves the judicial system previously in
effect and provides for a system of state security courts to deal with
offenses against the integrity of the state.  The high court system
remains in place with its functional division, common in European
states, including a constitutional court responsible for judicial review
of legislation, a court of cassation (or supreme court of appeals), a
council of state serving as the high administrative and appeals court, a
court of accounts, and a military court of appeals.  The High Council of
Judges and Prosecutors, appointed by the president,  supervises the
judiciary.
 Only the Motherland Party remains of the three parties that competed in
the 1983 elections.  The Nationalist Democracy Party dissolved itself,

and the Populist Party merged with the Social Democrat Populist Party, a
new center-left party.

Principal Government Officials
President of the Republic-Turgut Ozal
Prime Minister-Yildirim Akbulut
Minister of Foreign Affairs-Ahmet Kurtcebe Alpetemocin
Ambassador to the United States-Nuzhet Kandemir
Ambassador to the United Nations-Mustafa Aksin

 Turkey maintains an embassy in the United States at 1714 Massachussets
Avenue NW, Washington, DC, 20036  and consulates general in Chicago, Los
Angeles, New York, and Houston.

DEFENSE
 Turkey's armed forces, with more than 700,000 members, are the largest
in NATO after those of the United States. Turkey entered NATO in 1952
and serves as the organization's vital eastern anchor, sharing a long
sea and land border with the Soviet Union and controlling the straits
leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.  Two NATO headquarters
are located in Izmir.  More than 10,000 US military personnel and their
dependents are stationed at installations in Turkey, including a major
air base at Incirlik, near Adana, several communications and electronics
facilities, and a number of smaller installations.  Major Amer-ican
military organizations in Turkey include the Joint US Military Mission
for Aid to Turkey and the US Logistical Group, each headed by a US major
general.
 With assistance from the United States and other NATO allies, the
Turkish military is undergoing major modernization.

FOREIGN RELATIONS
 Besides its relationships with NATO and the European Community (EC),
Turkey is a member of the OECD and the Council of Europe.  Its primary
political, economic, and security ties are with the West. During the
last several years, Turkey has continued to expand its relations with
Western Europe, rejoining the Council of Europe after an absence of
several years and applying for full membership in the EC.  Turkey also
has continued to expand its trade relations with the Middle East and the
Soviet Union.

US-TURKISH RELATIONS
 Turkish-American friendship dates to the late 18th century and was
officially sealed by a treaty in 1830.  The present close relationship
began with the agreement of July 12, 1947, which implemented the Truman
Doctrine.  As part of the cooperative effort to further Turkish economic
and military self-reliance, the United States has loaned and granted
Turkey more than $4 billion in economic aid and more than $14 billion in
military assistance.
 US-Turkish relations were severely tested in July 1974, when Turkey
invoked a 1960 treaty of guarantee for Cyprus and sent troops there to
protect the Turkish Cypriot community following the overthrow of the
Cypriot government by mainland Greek officers in the Cypriot national
guard.  The ensuing fighting on Cyprus led to Turkish occupation of the
northern part of the island, which remains in place today.  Turkey's use
of American-supplied arms during the intervention caused the US Congress
to mandate an embargo in 1975 on military shipments to Turkey.
Resentment of this action led to a Turkish decision in July 1975 to
suspend important US defense activities at joint installations and
cancel the 1969 defense cooperation agreement.  The US embargo was
relaxed in October 1975, and in March 1976 a new defense agreement was
signed, but not approved, by the Congress.  In September 1978, the
embargo ended and US-Turkish relations improved markedly.  Turkey lifted
restrictions on US activities in late 1978.
 The United States and Turkey signed a defense and economic cooperation
agreement in March 1980 that established a new framework for US military
activities in Turkey and committed the United States to "best efforts"
in providing defense support to the Turkish armed forces.  The two
countries signed an exchange of letters in March 1987 to extend the
agreement through December of 1990.  It will continue automatically on a
year-to-year basis from 1991 on, unless one of the two parties objects
by September 18, 1991, or by the 18th of any following year.
 Turkey temporarily imposed some restrictions on American military
activities in early 1990 in response to the US Senate's consideration of
a resolution to declare a day of remembrance for what Armenians and
others have described as genocide of Armenians by pre-republican Turkey.
Turkey lifted the restrictions after the resolution failed to pass.  The
unresolved Armenian and Cyprus issues continue to disturb US-Turkish
relations.

Principal  US Officials
Ambassador-Morton I. Abramowitz
Deputy Chief of Mission-Marc Grossman
Counselors Political Affairs-Michael I. Austrian
Political-Military Affairs-Regina Eltz
Economic Affairs-Charles Jacobini
Administrative Affairs-William Kelly
Public Affairs Officer -Larry Taylor
Defense/Air Attache-Col. Jerry Kafka
Navy Attache-Capt. Jesse James
Army Attache-Col. Robert Jiminez
Consuls General Istanbul-Thomas Carolan Izmir-Eugene Zajac
Consul Adana-Harry Cole

US Mission Addresses
 The US embassy is located at 110 Ataturk Blvd., Ankara.  The consulate
general in Istanbul is at 104-108 Mesrutiyet Caddesi; the consulate
general in Izmir at 92 Ataturk Caddesi, third floor; and the consulate
in Adana, on Ataturk Caddesi.

ECONOMY
 The Turkish economy underwent dramatic changes in the 1980s.  An
export-led growth strategy and free-market principles catapulted Turkey
into the ranks of the fastest growing economies in the OECD.  Turkey's
free market orientation is dynamic, and it is unlikely to return to
former inward-looking policies.  The industrial sector has assumed
greater importance in the Turkish economy, although the public sector,
which includes state-owned or controlled enterprises, still accounts for
about one-third of industrial production.  Ozal's Motherland Party has
reinforced and expanded economic  reforms since coming to power in 1983.

 Agriculture continues as a mainstay, employing almost half the total
labor force in the production of cotton, tobacco, grains, fruits, and
vegetables.  Because of the productivity of Turkey's soil and the
efforts of Turkish farmers, the country was one of the few in the world
that was self-sufficient in food during the 1980s.  Ambitious government
projects, including a $21 billion irrigation program to create a new
"fertile crescent" in the semiarid southeast, stress agriculture's
important role in foreign trade.  Turkey's regional climatic diversity
and usually adequate rainfall permit a broad ange of crops.
 Growth in GNP averaged almost 7% between 1983 and 1989.  The pace of
Turkey's growth, however, slowed in the late 1980s.  Unrestrained
government spending, rapid economic development, and drought conditions
have had a price:  unemployment stands at 14.4%, and inflation remains
steady at almost 70%.  One of the main reasons for inflation is the
public sector deficit, which reached 7.5% of GNP in 1989 and is expected
to exceed that ratio in 1990.  Severe drought conditions were a major
factor in a recession that continued into 1989.  Agricultural production
dropped by almost 11%, pushing real GNP growth to the lowest level since
1980-1.8%.
 Turkish authorities have enacted austerity measures to reduce
inflation, including an ambitious program to privatize inefficient state
economic enterprises that contribute substantially to the deficit.
Better than normal agricultural conditions led to economic recovery in
1990, with real GNP growth expected to reach 9%.  Yet, lower import
duties-reduced to stimulate domestic production and demand by creating
greater competition-and the Turkish lira's real appreciation against
currencies of its primary trading partners, the United States and
Germany, led to a major acceleration in imports and stagnation in export
growth in 1990.  The trade deficit further worsened as all commercial
relations with Iraq were suspended.  A current account deficit in excess
of $1 billion is expected for 1990.
 Domestic economic problems were offset in the 1980s by substantial
improvements in Turkey's external account as exports expanded from $5.7
billion in 1983 to $11.6 billion in 1989.  Turkey posted a current
account surplus of $1.5 billion in 1988, the first time since 1973.
This remarkable improvement came as a result of the lowest trade deficit
in a decade ($1.8 billion) and a jump of about 60% in tourism revenues
(from $1.48 billion to $2.36 billion).  In 1989, a surplus of $966
million was achieved.
 Turkey has an exemplary record for repayment of its foreign debt, which
stabilized at $41 billion at the end of 1989.  Turkey refinanced
military debts during 1988 and 1989 by exchanging them for long-term
commercial credits.
  Turkey has attracted foreign investment by implementing one of the
more liberal foreign investment laws in the world.  Between 1981 and
1989, net foreign direct investment increased from $95 million to $633
million.  As of mid-1990, the government had authorized foreign direct
investment projects totaling $5.6 billion.
 Turkey's economic orientation is increasingly toward the West, although
it is looking for new markets in Asia and the Middle East. In April
1987, Turkey applied for full membership in the EC.  In 1989, the EC
announced it would consider no new members before 1993, the target for
completion of the EC's single market plan.  In 1990, the EC called for
closer economic cooperation with Turkey under the existing association
agreement and will review Turkey's membership application.
 With potential membership in the EC as the catalyst, Turkey continues
to liberalize its economy and harmonize related legislation to bring it
closer to Western standards.  In the 1990s, measured economic growth
with financial stability will remain a major domestic goal.

TRAVEL NOTES
 Customs:  A visa is not required of holders of US tourist passports
(regular, official, or diplomatic) who plan to stay in Turkey for 3
months or less.  Persons who plan to come to Turkey for longer stays
must apply for a visa from a Turkish embassy or consulate.
 Currency:  There are no restrictions on the importation of Turkish lira
or hard currencies into Turkey.  However, residents of Turkey must
declare all currencies in excess of the equivalent of $5,000 upon entry.
 Visitors to Turkey may exchange Turkish lira up to the equivalent of
$5,000 into foreign currency without any documentation.
 Climate and clothing:  Clothing and shoe requirements are about the
same as for the eastern US.  Climate on the periphery (Istanbul, Izmir,
and Adana) is Mediterranean with cool, rainy winters and hot, moderately
dry summers.  The Black Sea coast receives the greatest rainfall.
Shielded by mountains, the interior (Ankara) has continental climate
with cold winters and dry, hot summers. Climate in the eastern
mountainous area is often severe.
 Health:  Public health standards in the larger cities approach those in
the US, but care must be taken, especially in rural areas.  While tap
water in major cities is generally potable, it is recommended that
bottled water be used at all times, because of  possible intermittent
contamination of water lines.  Turkish law requires that at least one
pharmacy be open in a neighborhood at all times.
 Telecommunications:  Telephone and telegraph services, domestic and
international, and generally dependable.  During peak hours, circuits
are often overloaded. Turkey is seven hours ahead of EST.  Daylight
savings time is used.
 Transportation:  More than 20 scheduled airlines connect Turkey with
all parts of the world.  Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Antalya, and Dalaman
are Turkey's primary international airports.  Turkish Airlines (THY),
Turkish state railways, and a variety of intercity bus companies serve
many points in Turkey, Europe, and the Middle East.  Local buses, share
cabs, and minibuses (dolmus), although somewhat crowded, provide
satisfactory local transportation. Taxis are readily available. Main
roads are fairly good in and between the large centers; secondary roads
are generally adequate. Roads frequently lack shoulders.  Drivers should
exercise extreme care because of heavy truck and other traffic, and
unpredictable drivers.  Driving at night in the countryside should be
avoided because of many  or poorly-lit vehicles on the highway.

Publications Concerning Turkey
 Also available from the Superintendent of Documents,  US Government
Print- ing Office, Washington, DC, 20402:
 Turkey Post Report-US  Department of State (1990). Turkey,  A Country
Study- American University (1989). Foreign Labor Trends-US Department of
Labor. Foreign Economic Trends-US Department of Commerce. Economic
trends and trade information is available from the International Trade
Administration, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC, 20230, or
from any Commerce Department district office.

 Published by the United States Department of State - Bureau of Public
Affairs  - Office of  Public Communication  -  Washington, DC -- January
1991.  Editor:  Deborah Guido-O'Grady.
 Department of State Publication 7850 Background Notes Series.  This
material is in the public domain and may be reprinted without
permission; citation of this source is appreciated. For sale by the
Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC, 20402. (###)


#ENDCARD